את עבודתי משך כמעט שש שנים ב מרכז המחקר והמידע של הכנסת (ה-מממ) התחלתי ב-2004, שנה אל תוך התואר השני בסוציולוגיה. זכור לי שכאשר נתבקשתי באחד מתהליכי המיון לספר קצת על ציפיותיי מן העבודה, השבתי כי אני מצפה שהכנסת תהיה זירה מעניינת ללמוד על החברה הישראלית. לא התאכזבתי. אכן, העבודה הייתה מגוונת מאוד. הייתה לי הזכות להיחשף לשלל סוגיות מסקרנות שעלו על סדר יומה של החברה בישראל, ואף לעצם הליך קבלת ההחלטות בכנסת – נושא מעניין בפני עצמו, שהיבטים שלו מעסיקים אותי בדוקטורט.
אולם טור זה אינו עוסק בשאלה מה קיבלתי, כסוציולוג, מן העבודה ב-מממ (על כך, אולי, בפעם אחרת). אדרבה, השאלה היא הפוכה: מה, אם בכלל, תרמו הידע, הכישורים ודפוסי החשיבה שרכשתי בחוג לסוציולוגיה ואנתרופולוגיה לעבודתי ב-מממ? כיצד תכונות מופשטות כגון "ביקורתיות" ו-"רוחב אופקים", אותן אמורה השכלה גבוהה להנחיל, קיבלו ביטוי מעשי בחיי היומיום בעבודת ה-מממ?
התשובה המיידית, היא שמקום שלחם חוקו הוא הכנת מסמכים תמציתיים, בהירים, אובייקטיבים ככל הניתן, המעוגנים במקורות מהימנים ככל הניתן – מן הסתם יידרשו בו כישורים אקדמיים של כתיבה, חיפוש מידע, והערכה ביקורתית של מקורות ונתונים. ואכן, מיומנויות של מחקר וכתיבה, שנרכשו במהלך הלימודים ובמיוחד בהתנסות בקורס כתיבת עבודות ובסמינריונים, היו חיוניות לביצוע העבודה. גם מושגים שלמדתי בקורסים מתודולוגיים התבררו כחשובים להפקת מסמך מאוזן וביקורתי. למשל, קריאה ביקורתית בפרסום סמי-אקדמי שממנו ציטטתי נתונים ב סקירה משווה של הסדרת השימוש במים אפורים , הביאה אותי להזהיר שהנתונים המצוטטים נאספו בסקר דואר שעליו השיבו 30% מן הנשאלים בלבד, ולכן אינם מהימנים כל צרכם. חשוב מכך, מצאתי שמושגים מתחום המתודולוגיה, כמו מהימנות ותוקף, משרתים אותי היטב גם בניתוח נתונים רשמיים שהתקבלו מרשויות המדינה (ואף ממדינות זרות), שלעיתים היו חלקיים/בעייתיים (כך למשל במסמך שבו הצגתי וניתחתי נתונים על הפסיקה בתיקי סחר בנשים ).
אולם כל הכישורים האמורים לעיל – יכולה כתיבה, חיפוש מידע, יישום ביקורתי של מושגים מתודולוגיים – מוקנים לכלל הלומדים במדעי החברה, ואף ללומדים בפקולטות אחרות. אבל במה מתייחדים לימודי הסוציולוגיה והאנתרופולוגיה? האם תחומי דעת אלה מקנים פרספקטיבה ייחודית להתבוננות ביקורתית על העולם? אם כן, מה היא פרספקטיבה זו, והיכן היא באה לידי ביטוי בעבודת ה-מממ?
ברור לי שידיעותיי ודרכי החשיבה שרכשתי בלימודים השפיעו על אופן עבודתי בהרבה מאוד צמתים של העשייה, אך האמת היא שקשה לשים את האצבע במדויק איפה ומתי זה קורה; אילו באמת הייתי נובר במסמכים ומנסה לתעד השפעות אלו, מן הסתם הייתי מוצא אנקדוטות נקודתיות רבות על תרומות אלה ואחרות. במקום זאת, במבט רפלקסיבי לאחור, בחרתי להציע שתי דרכים שבהן ההכשרה האינטלקטואלית שקיבלתי בחוג השפיעה על האופן בו ניגשתי למשימותיי.
הדרך הראשונה היא במאמץ ליישם את התובנה בדבר " התוצאות הבלתי-צפויות של הפעולה החברתית המכוונת ", אותה ניסח רוברט מרטון לפני יותר משבעים שנה. מרטון טען שבפעולה פורמאלית של תכנון חברתי, שבה מטרות הפעולה החברתית מנוסחות באופן מוצהר, אפשר לעיתים קרובות לראות שבנוסף (או במקום) התוצאות המצופות ישנן גם תוצאות "בלתי צפויות." הדוגמה הקלאסית היא המהלך הדיאלקטי שמתאר ובר באתיקה הפרוטסטנטית ורוח הקפיטליזם: פעולה עם כוונה דתית מוצהרת הביאה – באופן לא-צפוי – לעליית הקפיטליזם ולדעיכת הדת. אולם תוצאות בלתי-צפויות מתרחשות לא רק בתהליכי מאקרו עמוקים וארוכי-טווח אלא גם בפעולות ותהליכים מצומצמים יותר. את שכיחותן של התוצאות הבלתי-צפויות מסביר מרטון בתנאים של העדר ידע וחוסר ודאות (מה שלימים ייקרא bounded rationality ), כמו גם בטעויות של השחקנים החברתיים (כאן הדיון מהדהד עם מה שלימים ייקראו heuristics ).
בית-מחוקקים הוא ללא ספק זירה של פעולה פורמאלית לתכנון חברתי, שבו הבחירה בין חלופות נעשית לעיתים קרובות בסוגיות מורכבות, שבאופן אינהרנטי קיימים לגביהן חוסר-וודאות ופערי מידע. אפשר לומר כי מטרה מרכזית של מסמכי ה-מממ היא להתמודד עם תנאים אלה: במידת האפשר, לספק ידע ונתונים שמקטינים את אי-הוודאות; וככל שנותרים פערי מידע, לזהותם ולהצביע עליהם מפורשות, תוך ניסיון להצביע על טווח "התוצאות הבלתי-צפויות" האפשריות. מבחינתי, חשיבה סוציולוגית ביקורתית התבטאה בכך שעל כל פתרון שהוצע לבעיית מדיניות שעליה כתבתי היה עלי לשרטט, עד כמה שיכולתי, בעיות חדשות שעלולות לצמוח מתוך הפתרון המוצע. הנה כמה דוגמאות: סנקציות על מעסיק שמפטר עובד מעל גיל מסוים עשויות בעיקרון להגן על עובדים מבוגרים , אך בפועל עלולות דווקא להגביר את האבטלה בקרב עובדים אלה, משום שמעסיקים יירתעו לכתחילה לקבלם לעבודה, ויפטרו עובדים שעל סף הגיל "המוגן" (כך קרה, למשל, בצרפת); הפללת לקוחות הזנות עשויה לצמצם את היקף התופעה, אך במקביל עלולה להגביר את הפגיעה בזונות עצמן, מכיוון שזנות במחתרת עלולה להיות אלימה ומסוכנת יותר; הגברת המיסוי על אנרגיה צפויה לתרום להפחתת הצריכה ובהתאם לכך לצמצום פליטת גזי חממה, אך השכבות החלשות, שלא באמת יכולות להצטמצם עוד בצריכתן האנרגטית המוגבלת ממילא ואשר מתקשות יותר מאחרים לעמוד במיסוי הנוסף, עלולות להיפגע מתוספת המס באופן קשה במיוחד (כלומר, זהו מס רגרסיבי על מוצר שהביקוש שלו קשיח); רצוי ש מדיניות לעידוד רכיבה על אופניים תפעל להגברת בטיחות הרוכבים, אך חיוב רוכבים לחבוש קסדה עלול בתורו להביא דווקא לירידה בהיקף השימוש באופניים; מדיניות להגברת מעורבות הורים במערכת החינוך עשויה לתרום לחינוך הילדים, אך היא גם עלולה להיטיב במיוחד עם קבוצות אוכלוסייה חזקות, וכך להעמיק פערים חברתיים.
לעיתים צריך לחפש את הבלתי-צפוי באופן יזום. למשל, זכור לי שבמסמך המוזכר לעיל על מעורבות הורים במערכת החינוך – אחד הראשונים שכתבתי – לא מצאתי התייחסות בחומרים הראשונים שאספתי לטענה, שמעורבות הורים עלולה להיטיב במיוחד עם בני המעמד הבינוני-המשכיל, וכך להנציח פערים. לנגד עיניי עמדה הדוגמה הקלאסית, עליה שמעתי במהלך לימודי התואר הראשון בחוג, של התוצאות הבלתי-צפויות של התוכנית 'רחוב סומסום': הכוונה הטובה של הטלוויזיה החינוכית בארה"ב הייתה להנגיש תכנים חינוכיים לילדים מכלל שכבות הציבור, וכך לצמצם פערים. אלא שהורים משכילים (או במילים אחרות: בעלי הון תרבותי גבוה) הכירו בחשיבות התוכנית והקפידו לראותה עם ילדיהם הרבה יותר מהורים שאינם משכילים, ולכן לא זו בלבד שהפערים לא צומצמו, אלא הם אף הועצמו. האין זה סביר שאותו הגיון יתקיים גם במקרה שלפני? סברתי שכן, אבל במחקרי המדיניות שסקרתי "הורים" הוצגו כמקשה משפטית אחת, ולא כקבוצה חברתית הטרוגנית. המשכתי לחפש ולבסוף איתרתי מחקר בכתב-העתSocial Forces שסיפק את הסימוכין המבוקשים. באופן זה יכולתי להוסיף למסמך אמירה קצרה (אך לטעמי חשובה), המתריעה כי לאור המחקר קיים חשש, "… כי התועלת הצומחת משיתוף הורים איננה אחידה כי אם דיפרנציאלית: מאחר שבתי-הספר הם 'מוסדות של מעמד הביניים', הורים ממעמדות הביניים פועלים במסגרת זו בקלות, בנוחות וביעילות רבה יותר מהורים מהשכבות החלשות. מכאן שדרוש מאמץ מודע כדי לערב הורים מן השכבות הללו בבתי-הספר." אין ספק שדברים אלה – אשר משקפים גם את הרגישות הדיסציפלינארית לסוגיות של יחסי-כוח וריבוד – היו נעדרים מן המסמך אלמלא המטען הסוציולוגי שהניע אותי למפות במידת האפשר את ה"תוצאות הבלתי צפויות" של עידוד מעורבות הורים במערכת החינוך.
חשוב לציין כי קבלת החלטות היא משימה קשה, הן משום שאין הערכות מדויקות של מאזן הסיכויים או הסיכונים (למשל, האם מישהו באמת יכול לנבא באופן מדויק עד כמה הפללת הלקוח תצמצם את מימדי הזנות, ועד כמה היא תגרום להחמרת האלימות כלפי הזונות?), והן משום שמדובר גם בשיקולים ערכיים, שבהגדרה אינם ניתנים להכרעה ברורה (מה קודם למה – צמצום מימדי הזנות או שלומן היחסי של הזונות?). התפקיד שלי (לשמחתי, בדרך כלל) לא היה להכריע ואף לא להמליץ מה היא המדיניות הנכונה ביותר – משימה לגמרי לא פשוטה. מה שניסיתי לעשות במסמכים הוא להקנות כלים לקיום דיון ענייני ולקבלת החלטות מושכלת.
הדרך השנייה בה ההכשרה האינטלקטואלית שקיבלתי בחוג השפיעה על עבודתי היא היכרותי מתוך הקורס בתיאוריות סוציולוגיות, כתלמיד ואחר כך כמתרגל, עם התיאוריה הניאו-מוסדית וגישת ה-World Society של ג'ון מאייר . אחד הדברים שהרביתי לעשותו ב-מממ הוא הכנת סקירות משוות, בין השאר על ידי פנייה לעמיתים בפרלמנטים זרים ולמשרדי ממשלה של מדינות שונות. כך מצאתי את עצמי "בורג" השזור בתוך רשת של פרופסיונאליים מן הסוג שמתארת התיאוריה המוסדית כחלק מן ההסבר לתהליכי דיפוזיה וגלובליזציה.
לאור היכרותי עם התיאוריה, התחדדה אצלי ההכרה בדבר הסכנות הכרוכות במה שמכונה "איזומורפיזם מוסדי", ובפרט הסכנה של חיקוי שנובע מן הצורך בלגיטימציה, אף אם החיקוי אינו מבוסס על הבנה מעמיקה של המודל אותו מחקים, ואף כאשר המודל אינו מתאים להקשר המקומי (היבט אחד של נושא זה נוגע לדוקטורט שלי, אבל על כך, כאמור, אולי בפעם אחרת). לאור זאת השתדלתי לתאר את ההקשר התרבותי והחברתי שבו פועלים המודלים שסקרתי, תוך כדי פיזור "אזהרות" למיניהן בתוך המסמכים בדבר הסכנה שבהעתקת מודלים מהקשר אחד למשנהו. אף השתדלתי לפרוט היכן עלולים להתעורר קשיים בהסקה ממקום אחד למשנהו. למשל, כאשר ערכתי סקירה משווה על האופן שבו "החוק הנורבגי" (ח"כ שמתמנה לממשלה פורש מן הפרלמנט, וחוזר אליה אם הוא חדל לכהן בממשלה) משפיע על יציבות הרכב הפרלמנט ותפקודו, ייחדתי פרק שלם להבדלים בין ההקשר הישראלי לזה של שאר המדינות שנכללו בסקירה. טענתי, למשל, שקשה להקיש ממה שקורה בנורבגיה ובשבדיה למה שצפוי שיתרחש בישראל, משום שבמדינות אלה הפרלמנטים גדולים יותר, והממשלות קטנות ויציבות יותר (הן משום הסדרים חוקתיים שונים, והן משום תרבות פוליטית שונה, למשל, מסורת של ממשלות מיעוט יציבות). רגישות זו לחשיבות ההקשר החברתי והתרבותי הספציפי של ההסדרים שבחנתי, והדחף להאיר את ההבדלים בין המדינות הנסקרות לבין עצמן ולבין ישראל, היא במידה רבה תולדה של לימודיי בחוג.
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בוגר בפיזיקה שואל, "מדוע זה פועל"?
בוגר בהנדסה שואל, "איך זה פועל"?
בוגר בחשבונאות שואל, "כמה יעלה להפעיל את זה"?
בוגר במנהל עסקים שואל, "מי אישר לזה לפעול"?
בוגר במשפטים שואל, "בסמכות של מי זה פועל"?
בוגר בסוציולוגיה ואנתרופולוגיה שואל, "אתה רוצה את זה עם חרדל"?
אכן, לא תמיד ברורה התועלת בלימודי סוציולוגיה ואנתרופולוגיה בכל הקשור ל"סיכויי החיים" וההשתלבות בשוק העבודה. בדומה לפילוסופיה, היסטוריה או ספרות, מהות הסוציולוגיה והאנתרופולוגיה היא פעילות אינטלקטואלית – הרחבת הדעת והסקרנות, תוך פיתוח כלים ביקורתיים להבנת המציאות המורכבת שסביבנו. מניסיוני אוכל להעיד, כי אף אם הסוציולוגיה והאנתרופולוגיה אינן מקנות הכשרה מקצועית ברורה עם דיפלומה שמהווה כרטיס כניסה למועדון נחשק של קריירות, אפשר "להתנחם" בכך שהכישורים העיוניים שנרכשים בתחומי דעת אלה עשויים להתברר, בסופו של דבר, כמשמעותיים גם בחיי המעשה.
Wow, great blog article.Really thank you! Awesome.
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